The Indian subcontinent was home to advanced civilizations since before recorded history.

It has also known its share of invaders. The Aryans (predecessors of the Hindus) conquered

most of the subcontinent before 1500 b.c. The Muslim Moghuls ruled much of India until

the advent of the European invaders. The Portuguese first arrived in 1489. French, Dutch,

and English traders followed. The British East India Company became ascendant, essentially

ruling India from 1760 to 1858, when India was formally transferred to the British Crown.

After long years of struggle, and nonviolent resistance to British colonialism under

Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, India became an independent country on August

15, 1947.

 

When the British left in 1947, British India was partitioned into primarily Hindu India

and mostly Muslim Pakistan. The centuries-old antagonism between Hindus and Muslims

has repeatedly erupted into open warfare between India and Pakistan since independence.

 

Type of G overnment

The Republic of India is a multiparty federal republic. The head of government is the prime

minister, while the president is the chief of state. There are two multiparty legislative houses: the Council of States and the House of the People.

 

In the 1920s, Mahatma Gandhi made the Indian National Congress into India’s leading

political force. Its successor, the Congress Party, has ruled India for most of the years since

independence.

 

India’s first prime minister was Mahatma Gandhi’s compatriot Jawaharlal Nehru. Power

remained with the Congress Party until 1977, when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi (Nehru’s

daughter) was voted out of office. Janata Party leader Morarji Desai became prime minister,

but his Janata coalition broke up in 1979. An interim government called new elections, and

Indira Gandhi returned to power in 1980. She was assassinated by her own Sikh bodyguards

in 1984, and she was succeeded by her son, Rajiv Gandhi. He attempted to steer the country

toward a more market-oriented economy but was defeated in the 1989 elections by another

Janata coalition, and Vishwanath Pratap Singh became prime minister.

 

V. P. Singh’s minority government’s most serious crisis resulted from its determination to

reserve some 49 percent of government jobs for lower castes (which make up 54 percent of

India’s 890 million people). Insurgencies in Punjab, Kashmi, and Assam further weakened

the government. The Singh government fell in November 1990.

 

Rajiv Ghandi was assassinated during the elections of May 1991. In 1998 the Hindu

nationalist BJP party formed a coalition under Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee, and

India performed their first nuclear tests. President Abdul Kalam, the former architect of

India’s missile program, was elected in 2002, and Manmohan Singh was sworn in as prime

minister in a surprise victory for the Congress Party in 2004.

 

Cultural Note

India’s government is determined to achieve self-sufficiency, and for decades has declined offers of outside help. In fact, after the tragic Boxing Day tsunami of 2004, not only did India decline outside aid, it provided assistance to its neighbors. Indians tend to be very patriotic, and most support their government’s efforts to increase their country’s prestige.

They believe that India should take its rightful place as one of the world’s leading nations and as the leading military power in South Asia.

 

Language

Hindi is the national language, and English is an associate official language (widely used for

business and political communications), but there are 14 other official languages and almost

400 others acknowledged by linguists. The 14 additional official languages are:

Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Panjabi,

Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu. Hindustani is a popular variant of Hindi/Urdu

that is spoken widely throughout northern India but it is not an official language. The literacy

rate is listed at approximately 60 percent.

 

The Indian View

Religion plays a major role in the daily lives of most Indians, and two of the world’s great

religions—Buddhism and Hinduism—were born here.

The majority of Indians are Hindu. Unlike many religions that are traced to a particular

founder, Hinduism grew out of Indian mythology. Hinduism has many variants and lacks

a single, authoritative text (like the Christian Bible or the Muslim Koran). It is a religion

with multiple gods, and it teaches a belief in karma and reincarnation. To escape the cycles

of reincarnation and achieve nirvana, one must stop committing both bad deeds and good

deeds—a difficult process that requires virtual nonintervention with humanity. India’s caste

system is supported by most variants of Hinduism. Many Hindus venerate cows and neither

eat beef nor wear leather. Many Hindus are vegetarians.

 

Interestingly, Hinduism is still an evolving, dynamic religion. In some Hindu variants,

new gods continue to be added to the pantheon. Indian film stars sometimes find themselves

added to the Hindu pantheon!

 

A minority of Indians are Muslim. Islam is a monotheistic religion with ties to both

Judaism and Christianity. Shiite Muslims outnumber Sunni Muslims by about three to one

in India. Surrender to the will of Allah is a central belief. Pork and alcohol are prohibited to

observant Muslims. While the majority of Hindus and Muslims coexist peacefully in India,

violence does sometimes break out. Hundreds of people in both religions have died in religious conflicts.

 

About 2 percent of Indians are Sikhs. Sikhism combines tenets of both Hinduism and

Islam. Sikhs believe in reincarnation but do not recognize caste distinctions. Unlike Hindus,

Sikhs reject nonintervention with the world as cowardly.

 

India also has Christians, Buddhists, Jains, and Zoroastrians. The Republic of India has

no official religion. The origins of the caste system are unclear, but it has existed in India for thousands of years. Even though the government has outlawed discrimination on the basis of caste, castes still play a significant role in the politics and business of the country. Although there are only four traditional castes, these are broken down into thousands of subcastes.

 

Know Before You Go

India has suffered everything from cyclones (in 1999 at least 10,000 died in the eastern state of Orissa) to massive earthquakes (approximately 30,000 dead in Gujarat during 2001) to the devastation of the tsunami in southern India in 2004. Additional hazards include droughts, flash floods from monsoons, and extreme weather changes in the Himalayas. 

 

Stay healthy on your trip. Listen to your doctor’s advice prior to your visit (and take your vaccinations against hepatitis A, cholera, etc.). Many travelers fall ill because of overindulging in spicy foods, or eating raw fruits or vegetables that have been contaminated. Drink bottled water, wear sunscreen, and be certain to bring any required medications

with you.

 

Cultural Orientation

Cognitive S tyles: H ow Indians Organize and Process Information  

In India information is accepted openly as long as it does not challenge religious and social

structures. Because of rote learning and tradition, most thinking is associative. However,

highly educated Indians are more abstractive and analytical. Although universal rules of

behavior exist within the social structure, immediate situations and people are of major

concern, but always within the constructs of the caste system.

 

Negotiation S trategies: What Indians A ccept as E vidence

Personal feelings form the basis for the truth, but a strong faith in religious ideologies is

always present. The use of objective facts is less persuasive than a combination of feelings

and faith.

 

Value S ystems: T he Basis for Behavior

Although it is constantly being challenged by younger citizens, India still has an attachment

to the caste system, with all of its social structure and liabilities. The following three sections

identify the Value Systems in the predominant culture—their mode of dividing right from

wrong, good from evil, and so forth.

 

Locus of Decision-Making

India is a moderately collectivistic culture in which an individual’s decisions must be in

harmony with the family, group, and social structure. Success and failure are often attributed to environmental factors. Friendships and kinships are more important than expertise, although diplomas and certificates are coveted. One must build a relationship with other participants in the negotiation process by discussing friends and family. Indians may often be too polite to say “no.”

 

Sources of Anxiety Reduction

With such a strong social structure, there is little anxiety about life because individuals

know and accept their place in the society or organization. Behaviors contrary to religious

traditions are not easily tolerated. There is a strong sense of what westerners call “fatalism,”

so time is not a major source of anxiety, and passivity is a virtue. Emotions can be shown,

and assertiveness is expected.

 

Issues of Equality/Inequality

There is a very rigid structure of inequality, even though there is equality under the law (seldom enforced). The belief that there are qualitative differences between the castes is ingrained.

 

Traditional male chauvinism is strong, and women do not have equal privileges. The abundant sexual symbols in society do not translate into an acceptance of public intimacy.

 

Cultural Note

Tipping in India is more than just a reward for good service; it is often the way to ensure that things get done. The termbaksheesh encompasses both these meanings. Judicious (and discreet) use of baksheesh will often open closed doors, such as getting a seat on a “sold-out” train.

 

Business P ractic es

Punctuality, A ppointments, and L ocal T ime

● Indians appreciate punctuality but do not always practice it themselves. Keep your schedule loose enough for last-minute rescheduling of meetings.

● Request appointments as far ahead as possible. Advances in communication systems have

made it far easier to schedule meetings, but it is still appropriate to get on the schedule of

executives as early as possible.

● Be aware that your Indian contacts may request impromptu meetings, at late hours.

● Make sure that you are fully equipped with the latest wireless and telecom devices before

you arrive in India—your prospects will want multiple ways to contact you and will

expect you to invest in technology.

● Although they usually do not make final decisions, middle managers do have input. A

middle manager on your side can forward your proposal. Often they are more accessible,

and they are willing to meet at any time of the day.

● Go to the top of the company for major decisions.

● Indian executives generally prefer late morning or early afternoon appointments, between

11:00 a.m. and 4:00 p.m.

● The best time of year to visit India is between October and March, bypassing the seasons

of extreme heat and monsoons.

● Business is not conducted during religious holidays, which are numerous. Dates for these

holidays change from year to year, so confirm your schedule with local contacts.

● India is five and a half hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T. +5½), or ten and a

half hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time (E.S.T. +10½ hours).

● India operates in one time zone, and although it does not observe daylight-saving time,

many visitors have mentioned their use of IST (Indian Stretchable Time).

 

Negotiating

● Indians have a less hurried attitude toward time than North Americans. The concept

“time is money” is alien to many Indians.

● While you should get sound legal and tax advice before negotiating any agreement, it is

important to be flexible and not appear too legalistic during negotiations.

● Be prepared to offer competitive technology packages with close technical follow-up.

The technical assistance you can provide and how effective your training support is will

be critical factors in the decision.

● Expect delays; they are inevitable. The Indian government moves at its own pace, and

communication within India may still be somewhat difficult. Be patient, and make a

realistic assessment of the steps and time involved in finalizing any agreements.

● Always present your business card. It is not necessary to have it translated into an Indian

language.

● Business in India is highly personal. A great amount of hospitality is associated with

doing business. Tea and small talk are preludes to most discussions.

● When refreshments are offered, it is customary to refuse the first offer, but to accept the

second or third. To completely refuse any refreshment is an insult. Drink slowly if you

wish to limit your intake of the sugary, milky Indian tea.

● The word “no” has harsh implications in India. Evasive refusals are more common and

are considered more polite. Never directly refuse an invitation—just be vague and avoid

a time commitment. “I’ll try” is an acceptable refusal.

 

Cultural Note

In a monetary transaction, your change is simply placed in your hand, without explanation of the amount. If you remain standing with your hand outstretched, you may receive more change. Be sure to keep lots of small change on hand, because street merchants and taxi drivers often claim they do not have change.

 

Business E ntertaining

● Business lunches are preferred to dinners.

● Remember that Hindus do not eat beef and Muslims do not eat pork.

● Businesswomen may host Indian businessmen at a meal without embarrassing the men,

although the men may try to pay at the end of the meal. Female executives should arrange

to pay the bill with the waiter before the meal.

● If you are invited to dinner, be a few minutes late unless it is an official function. If the

dinner is in a home, you may arrive fifteen to thirty minutes late.

● Eat only with the right hand, because the left hand was traditionally used for hygienic

purposes and is considered unclean.

● Touching a communal dish with your hands may cause fellow diners to avoid it.

Never offer another person (even a spouse) food from your plate, as it is considered

“polluted” as soon as it is placed on your plate.

● Washing your hands both before and after a meal is important. In Hindu homes, you are

expected to rinse your mouth out as well.

● Do not thank your hosts at the end of a meal. Saying “thank you” for a meal is insulting

because the thanks are considered a form of payment. Returning the meal by inviting

your hosts to dinner shows that you value the relationship.

● India’s two major religions abjure beef and pork, so it is not surprising that Indian cuisine

uses mostly chicken, lamb, or vegetables.

 

Cultural Note

Here’s one rude move you should be especially aware of in India. If you must share a bottle of water, tilt your head back and pour it into your mouth from above . . . without touching your lips. Don’t put your mouth on the bottle and then try to pass it to the next parched soul. That would be jootha. The term “jootha” refers to a breach of conduct where your

germs are being spread around, rather than your goodwill. Sharing is not always a virtue!

 

Protocol

Greetings

● In large cities, men and very westernized Indian women will offer to shake hands with

foreign men and sometimes with foreign women. Western women should not initiate

handshaking with Indian men.

● There are numerous ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups in India, each with its own

traditions.

● The majority of Indians are Hindu. Most Hindus avoid public contact between men and

women. Men may shake hands with men, and women with women, but only westernized

Hindus will shake hands with the opposite sex.

● A minority of Indians are Muslim. Traditionally, there is no physical contact between

Muslim men and women. Indeed, if an orthodox Muslim male is touched by a woman,

he must ritually cleanse himself before he prays again. Because of this, women should

not offer to shake hands with Muslim men (nor should men offer to shake hands with

Muslim women). Of course, if a westernized Indian offers to shake hands, do so. Other

Indian religious groups, such as Sikhs, also avoid public contact between the sexes.

● The traditional Indian greeting is the namaste. To perform the namaste, press the palms

of your hands together (as if praying) below the chin, near the heart, and gently nod or

bow slightly. There are many Web sites that describe the meaning of the namaste, and

how this peaceful greeting can be appropriate for individuals or for large meetings.

● A namaste is useful for foreigners in any situation where a handshake might not be

acceptable. It is also a good alternative to a handshake when a Western businesswoman

greets an Indian man.

● Indians of all ethnic groups disapprove of public displays of affection between people of

the opposite sex. Do not touch (except in handshaking), hug, or kiss in greeting.

 

Cultural Note

Giving money to a beggar will result in your being besieged by dozens of them. Unless you wish to distribute alms to many of India’s poor, avoid even making eye contact.

When walking past an Indian temple, keep your hands in your pockets. If your hand is free, a stranger may offer to shake your hand. They are often street merchants who quickly slap a temple bracelet on your outstretched arm. Then you are expected to pay for the bracelet.

 

Titles/Forms of A ddress

● It is important to note that India’s naming conventions are changing. For example, the

Southern region of India seems to be gradually moving toward the naming customs of

the North, and professional females are starting to keep their maiden names.

● Titles are highly valued by Indians. Always use professional titles, such as “Professor”

and “Doctor.” Don’t address someone by his or her first name unless you are asked to or

you are close friends; use “Mr.,” “Mrs.,” or “Miss.”

● Status is determined by age, university degrees, caste, and profession.

● Occupationally, government service is more prestigious than private business.

● Traditionally, Hindus did not have family surnames. A Hindu Indian male used the

initial of his father’s name first, followed by his own personal name. For example, V. Thiruselvan is “Thiruselvan, son of ‘V.’” For legal purposes, both names would be written out

with an “s/o” (for “son of ”) between the names: Thiruselvan s/o Vijay. In either case, he

would be known as Mr. Thiruselvan. However, long Indian names are often shortened.

He may prefer to be called either Mr. Thiru or Mr. Selvan. Hindu female names follow the same pattern: father’s initial plus personal name. When fully written out, “d/o” (for “daughter of ”) is used instead of “s/o.” When an Indian woman marries, she usually ceases to use her father’s initial; instead, she follows her personal name with her husband’s name. For instance, when S. Kamala (female) marries V. Thiru (male), she will go by Mrs. Kamala Thiru.

● Some Indians will use Western-style surnames. Christian Indians may have biblical surnames like Abraham or Jacob. Indians from the former Portuguese colony of Goa may

have surnames of Portuguese origin, such as Rozario or DeSilva. Such a person could be

addressed as Dr. Jacob or Mr. DeSilva.

● Muslim names are usually derived from Arabic. Generally, a Muslim is known by a given

name plus bin (son of) plus their father’s name. For example, Osman bin Ali is “Osman,

son of Ali.” He would properly be called Mr. Osman, not Mr. Ali—Mr. Ali would be

Osman’s father.

● A Muslim woman is known by her given name, plus binti (daughter of) and her father’s

name. For example, Khadijah binti Fauzi is “Khadijah, daughter of Fauzi.” She would be

known as Miss Khadijah or, if married, as Mrs. Khadijah. For business purposes, some

Indian women attach their husband’s name. Thus, if Khadijah was married to Osman,

she might choose to be known as Mrs. Khadijah Osman. Note that in English, binti may

also be spelled “binte.

● Some westernized Indians drop the bin or binti from their name.

● A Muslim male who has completed his pilgrimage to Mecca is addressed as Haji. A

woman who has done so would be addressed as Hajjah. Note that these titles are not

automatically conferred on spouses; they must be individually earned by making the

pilgrimage. However, when in doubt, err on the side of generosity. It is better to give a

superfluous title than to omit one.

● Indian Sikhs generally have a given name followed by either Singh (for men) or Kaur (for

women). Always address them by a title and first name. While Singh literally means “lion,”

to refer to a Sikh male as Mr. Singh is as meaningless as saying Mr. Man in English.

 

Gestures

● Many Indians consider the head to be the seat of the soul. Never touch someone else’s

head, not even to pat the hair of a child.

● As in much of the world, to beckon someone, you hold your hand out, palm downward,

and make a scooping motion with the fingers. Beckoning someone with the palm up and

wagging one finger can be construed as an insult.

● Standing tall with your hands on your hips—the “arms akimbo” position (also the gesture

for “Offsides!” in soccer)—will be interpreted as an angry, aggressive posture.

● The comfortable standing distance between two people in India varies with the culture.

In general, Hindu Indians tend to stand about three or three and a half feet apart.

● Pointing with a finger is rude; Indians point with the chin.

● Whistling under any circumstances is considered impolite.

● Winking may be misinterpreted as either an insult or a sexual proposition.

● Grasping your ears designates sincerity or repentance. Ears are considered sacred

appendages; to pull or box someone’s ears is a great insult.

● Never point your feet at a person. Feet are considered unclean. If your shoes or feet touch

another person, apologize.

 

Gifts

● Gifts are not opened in the presence of the giver. If you receive a wrapped gift, set it aside

until the giver leaves.

● If you are invited to an Indian’s home for dinner, bring a small gift of chocolates or flowers.

Don’t give frangipani blossoms, however—they are associated with funerals.

● Don’t wrap gifts in black or white, which are considered unlucky colors; green, red, and

yellow are lucky colors.

● If you know that your Indian counterpart drinks alcohol, bring imported whiskey. High

taxes can be avoided by purchasing the liquor on the airline or at the duty-free shop

before arriving.

● Muslims consider dogs unclean. Do not give toy dogs or gifts with pictures of dogs to

Indian Muslims.

● Should you give money to an Indian, make sure it is an odd number. Usually this is done

by adding a single dollar; for example, give $11 instead of $10.

 

Dress

● For business dress, men should wear a suit and tie, although the jacket may be removed

in the summer. Businesswomen should wear conservative dresses or pantsuits.

● For casualwear, short-sleeved shirts and long trousers are preferred for men; shorts are

acceptable only while jogging. Women must keep their upper arms, chest, back, and legs

covered at all times. Women who jog should wear long pants.

● Note that wearing leather (including belts, handbags, or purses) may be considered

offensive, especially in temples. Hindus revere cows and do not use leather products.

 

Cultural Note

In the 1800s, the British East India Company created an enormous barrier between their territories and the thenindependent Indian kingdoms. Rather than building a wall, they grew a huge hedge, 2,504 miles in length! The Great Hedge (as it was known) was designed to keep out untaxed goods. At some 1,700 breaks in the hedge, the British erected customs houses, from which they would demand taxes on imported goods. The most profitable of these was the Salt Tax. The profits from the Salt Tax justified the cost of building the Great Hedge, as well as paying for 12,000 Indians to maintain and guard it.

 

The Great Hedge was at least eight feet in height and five feet in width. Over rocky ground where nothing would grow, stone walls took the place of the hedge. As the British annexed the lands on the other side of the Great Hedge, the barrier lost its main purpose. Maintenance on the Great Hedge was abandoned in 1879. Some parts were torn down,

others burned in the dry season or simply died. Few stretches of the Great Hedge remain today, and its existence is all but forgotten.