The original inhabitants of Canada were Inuits (the preferred term for Eskimos) and the people of the First Nations (Amerindians). French explorers established the first permanent European colony in 1534, with the founding of New France in what is now Quebec. The British followed with a colony in Newfoundland in 1583, and for almost 200 years France and England ruled competing colonies in Canada. Finally, during the course of the European Seven Years’ War, the British forces in Canada overwhelmed the French. The French troops abandoned the unprofitable New France colony in 1760, and Canada became a British

possession.

 

Like the original thirteen colonies of the United States, Canada was divided into separate colonies under British rule. After the grievances of the American colonies resulted in the U.S. Revolutionary War and eventual independence, Britain tried to avoid the same mistakes with Canada. The Canadian provinces were given a considerable amount of self-government, and most Canadians generally found Britain’s rule acceptable. Canada’s population also grew as many U.S. citizens loyal to the British crown moved to Canada.

 

After the U.S. Civil War, thousands of Irish soldiers were discharged from the Union Army and joined the Fenian Brotherhood, a society dedicated to freeing Ireland from British rule. The Fenians hatched a lunatic scheme: They would invade the Canadian colonies and hold them for ransom, demanding freedom for Ireland. In 1866, Fenian forces invaded Canada at three separate border crossings. Their incursions posed little threat, and the Fenians were soon repulsed. However, they did frighten most of the recalcitrant Canadian colonies into accepting unification.

 

Under the British North America Act, most of the colonies were united on July 1, 1867. Canada dates its origin as a country from this event. Because the United States objected to the title “Kingdom of Canada,” the new country was given the less imperial, biblically inspired name Like the United States, Canada expanded westward in the nineteenth century, and new provinces were added. The Canadian frontier expansion is remembered as a fairly peaceful process, unlike the violent American “winning of the West.” Rather than gunslingers, outlaws, and Indian fighters, Canadians glorified the builders of their transcontinental railroad,  which was completed in 1885.

 

The 1931 Statute of Westminster granted Canada full independence from the United Kingdom, and the postwar NATO alliance brought the United States and Canada closertogether. Canada reached its current configuration in 1949, when the last remaining colony,

 

Newfoundland, finally joined the Canadian confederation.

 

In recent years, the Canadian Confederation has weathered substantial separatist pressures. In addition to the always-fractious Quebec province, the western provinces have opposed many of the rulings of the national government in Ottawa.

 

Canada joined the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994, creating a free trade zone spanning Canada, the United States of America, and Mexico. In 1999, Canada created a new territory called Nunavut, providing self-government to the Inuit people of the central and eastern Arctic.

 

Type of Government

Canada is a federal multiparty parliamentary democracy, with the provinces holding more power than do states in the United States. The titular head of state of Canada is the British monarch, represented by the governorgeneral. The head of government in Canada is the prime minister. The Canadian Parliament has two houses: a Senate and a House of Commons.

 

Language

English and French are the official languages, with French predominating only in Quebec. The approximate breakdown is 60 percent English speakers, 24 percent French speakers.

 

Due to the large numbers of ethnic Chinese who have recently immigrated to Canada (many of whom fled Hong Kong prior to its takeover by the People’s Republic of China), Chinese is now the third most common language spoken in Canada. Language issues can be intensely political in Canada. The Métis people are descended

from French and Scottish fur traders who intermarried with Amerindians. They spoke a tongue called Michif, which combined French and Cree. Although almost extinct, some Métis are reviving the language in the hopes of solidifying their claims as a distinct society.

 

The Inuit language Inuktitut is the language of the new territory of Nunavut. Inuktitut does not use the Roman alphabet but uses its own syllabic form of writing, originally developed by Anglican missionaries.

 

Linguists count ninety different languages used in Canada, five of which are extinct. All the extinct languages are Amerindian.

 

The Canadian View

The traditional division of Canada between Roman Catholic (46 percent) and Protestant (41 percent) remains; Jews and Eastern Orthodox each constitute less than 2 percent. Canada’s geography and harsh winters have always isolated its rural population. However, the introduction of computers and the Internet has reduced this isolation for Canadians who use this technology, notably the younger segment of the population.

As in other countries, Canada’s churches are weathering serious scandals rising from sexual abuse of children by the clergy. In Canada, various churches ran most of the schools for the Amerindian population. Canada’s Inuit, First Nation, and Métis (mixed-blood) populations had already been at odds with church schools over the destruction of indigenous culture and language. (Typically, students at boarding schools were prohibited from speaking their indigenous tongues.) The sexual abuse scandal has exacerbated relations between the Amerindians and the churches. Younger Canadians generally do not consider church as crucial a priority as older generations.

 

While Canadians appreciate public figures with sophistication and charisma, they also respect frank and honest speech. One of Canada’s most respected leaders has been Auditor General Sheila Fraser, who investigated fiscal irregularities in the government and reported them in the straightforward manner of a scolding mother. 

 

As previously mentioned, some linguistic requirements in the provinces affect business, such as Quebec’s laws requiring French titles and labeling.

 

Separatist movements can also affect business. Separatist sentiment can cause people to reject brand names they view as foreign, in favor of local brands.

 

Canada has benefited from Anti-American sentiments in the last few years. International firms who do not want to do business directly with companies from the United States have sometimes become clients of Canadian companies that can provide similar, or exact products as in the United States. This has contributed to Canada’s trade surplus.

 

Know Before You Go

Canada is a remarkably peaceful country. However, robberies and street violence do occur. The weather presents the greatest hazard to travelers. Canada’s winters are long and cold. Frostbite is a danger.

Canada is relatively free of natural disasters. Tornadoes occur ccasionally, as do earthquakes—mostly along the country’s Pacific coast.

 

Cultural Orientation

Cognitive Styles: How Canadians Organize and Process Information Canadians in general are well informed and open to reasonable discussions. The French province of Quebec is less open. Canadians, in general, are quite analytical and prefer objective information over subjective. They act on problems more from the perspective of universal rules than from the particular perspectives of the people involved.

 

Negotiation Strategies: What Canadians Accept as Evidence

Facts are accepted as the primary evidence in negotiations, with little credence given to feelings.

There is a strong ethnocentrism within the provinces, especially in Quebec. This leads to a faith in self-determination that may underlie their behavior in negotiations.

 

Value Systems: The Basis for Behavior

The French province of Quebec has quite a different value system from the rest of Canada. Consumerism is well developed in all provinces. The following three sections identify the Value Systems in the predominant culture—their methods of dividing right from wrong, good from evil, and so forth.

 

Locus of Decision-Making

There is extremely high individualism in decision-making, but one must follow company policy. Therefore, one person can be exchanged for another without disrupting negotiations. Canadians do not find it difficult to say “no.” A need for privacy prohibits discussing one’s family and personal affairs in business negotiations. Friendships are few and specific to needs. Canadians have been charted by sociologists as having a low long-term orientation. This would indicate that Canadians focus on immediate results, rather than on how decisions

will affect future generations.

 

Sources of Anxiety Reduction

Canadians generally have a relatively low index of uncertainty avoidance. As a result, Canadians do not feel the need to establish strict laws to give structure to their worldview. An objective approach to life allows the use of social organizations and other external structures to provide stability and insulation from life. Emotion is not to be shown in public. 

 

Competitive behavior is expected, because recognition is an individual’s greatest reward. Time is money. Experts are relied upon at all levels. Canadian public services, especially its universal health care, provide a great degree of security. However, with Canada’s aging population, it is unknown whether this level of social service can be maintained. As has been observed, Canadians have social services equivalent to those of western Europe—paid for by tax rates similar to those in the United States.

 

Issues of Equality/Inequality

Emphasis is on an individual’s ability, but considerable tension exists between the provinces, particularly with Quebec. Although there are inequalities in roles, equal rights should be guaranteed to all, as superiors and subordinates are “people like me.” Material progress is as important as humanistic progress. Traditional sex roles are changing rapidly.

 

Business Practices

Punctuality, Appointments, and Local Time

● Being punctual is important. Be on time for all business-related meetings.

● French-speaking areas of Canada may have a somewhat more casual attitude toward time, but individual businesspeople vary. As a foreigner, you will be expected to be prompt, even if your Canadian counterpart is not.

● In general, it is acceptable to be fifteen minutes late for evening social occasions.

● Canadians usually write the day first, then the month, then the year (e.g., December 3, 2011, is written 3.12.11 or 3/12/11).

● Mornings tend to be preferred for appointments.

● Canada spans six time zones. Most of Quebec and Ontario are on Eastern Standard Time, which is five hours behind Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T. –5). Western Ontario, Manitoba, and eastern Saskatchewan (including Regina) are on Central Standard Time. Western Saskatchewan, Alberta, and easternmost British Columbia are on Mountain Standard Time. Most of British Columbia is on Pacific Standard Time (eight hours behind G.M.T.). All of these correspond to time zones in the United States.

● Atlantic Standard Time (four hours behind G.M.T.) is one hour ahead of Eastern Standard Time. All the Maritime Provinces are on Atlantic Standard Time except for Newfoundland Island, which reminds the world of its separate identity by maintaining a separate time zone that is thirty minutes ahead of Atlantic Standard Time (3½ hours behind G.M.T.).  Note that this thirty-minute difference applies only to Newfoundland Island; Labrador, which is the mainland part of Newfoundland Province, is on Atlantic Standard Time. Note that the name Newfoundland is pronounced “new-fin-land,” not “new-found-land.”

● From the end of April through late October, most of Canada is on daylight-saving time. 

 

Negotiating

● Negotiating styles tend to be very similar to those in the United States, although the pace may be slightly slower.

● Canadians associate the United States with self-promotion and “hype.” Never inflate a product’s benefits; it could generate claims of illegal promotion. Canadians expect to hear the truth.

● When working with French Canadians, it is important to have all material written in French as well as English.

 

Cultural Note

In Quebec, there are very stringent French-language requirements for all commercial endeavors. French is the only legal language in which to conduct business, and all signs must be posted in French only. However, English phrases that haveno French equivalents (such as “happy hour” or “bargain basement”) are permitted.

● English-speaking Canadian businesspeople expect a firm handshake, direct eye contact, and an open, friendly manner.

● Despite these similarities to citizens of the United States, English-speaking Canadians are closer to the reserved traditions of the British. It is important not to come off as an overbearing boor from the United States.

● While many Canadians quickly address others by their first names, it is safest to wait for your Canadian counterpart to suggest it.

● Acknowledge Canadians’ desire for a “Canadian identity.”

● French Canadians generally exhibit less reserve than English-speaking Canadians. Their gestures will be more expansive, they may stand closer while talking, and they are more likely to touch during a conversation.

● Canada is a multiethnic nation—British, French, Inuit, Indian, German, and so forth—and the etiquette of businesspeople may reflect their ethnic background. For example, many wealthy Hong Kong Chinese have acquired Canadian citizenship; their habits may be significantly different from those of other Canadians.

 

Business Entertaining

● Business meals are popular in Canada, although the breakfast meetings are not as commonplace as in the United States.

● Traditionally, dinners were considered social occasions—if business was discussed at all, it was at the end of the meal. While this is changing, it is wise to allow your Canadian counterpart to bring up business first.

● Invitations to dine at a Canadian home are relatively infrequent, except in the western provinces, where outdoor barbecues have become popular.

 

Protocol

Greetings

● The standard greeting is a smile, often accompanied by a nod, wave, and/or verbal greeting.

● In business situations, a handshake is used upon greetings or introductions.

● Among Canadians of British descent, the handshake tends to be firm, and a weak handshake may be taken as a sign of weakness. Men usually wait for women to offer their hand before shaking.

● French Canadians also have a fairly firm handshake. And they shake hands more often: upon greetings, introductions, and departures, even if the person has been greeted earlier that day.

● Good friends and family members sometimes embrace, especially between the French. A kissing of cheeks may occur as well. Note that the French do not finish an embrace with a pat or two on the back, as many U.S. citizens do.

● If you see an acquaintance at a distance, a wave is appropriate.

● The greetings “How are you?” is not an inquiry about your health. The best response is a short one, such as “Fine, thanks.”

 

Titles/Forms of Address

● The order of most Canadian names is first name, middle name, last name.

● To show respect, use a title such as “Dr.,” “Ms.,” “Miss,” “Mrs.,” or “Mr.” with the last name.

● When you meet someone for the first time, use the person’s title and surname until you are told to do otherwise (this may happen immediately).

● Note that although they often use first names over the telephone, French Canadians may revert to using surnames in person.

 

Gestures

● The standard space between you and your conversation partner should be two feet. British Canadians are uncomfortable standing any closer to another person. French Canadians may stand slightly closer.

● Canadians, especially those of British descent, do not tend toward frequent or expansive gesturing.

● In general, English-speaking friends of the same sex do not link arms or hold hands. However, female French Canadians commonly touch during conversation and may walk arm-in-arm.

● To point, you can use the index finger, although it is not polite to point at a person.

● To beckon someone, wave all the fingers in a scooping motion with the palm facing up.

● To show approval, there are two typical gestures. One is the “okay” sign, done by making a circle of the thumb and index finger. The other is the “thumbs-up” sign, done by making a fist and pointing the thumb upward.

● The “V-for-victory” sign is done with the palm facing out. It can be taken as an insult when done with the palm inward.

● The backslap is a sign of close friendship among British Canadians. It is rarely used among the French.

● To wave good-bye, move your entire hand, facing outward.

● Direct eye contact shows that you are sincere, although it should not be too intense. Some minorities look away to show respect.

● When sitting, Canadians often look very relaxed. They may sit with the ankle of one leg on the knee of the other or prop their feet up on chairs or desks.

● In business situations, maintain good posture and a less casual pose.

Gifts

● Business gifts should be modest. Ostentation tends to be frowned upon by Canadians.

● When you visit a home, it is customary to take a gift. Flowers, candy, or alcohol are common gifts.

● At Christmastime gifts are exchanged. To your business associates, you can give gifts that are helpful at the office, or liquor or wine. Most stores gift-wrap at Christmas.

● A good time to give a gift is when you arrive or when you leave. The best gifts are those that come from your country.

● Business gifts are given after you close a deal. Unless the giver specifies a time at which the gift is to be opened, as may happen with a gift at Christmastime, gifts are usually unwrapped immediately and shown to everyone.

● Taking someone out for a meal or other entertainment is a common gift. 

 

Cultural Note

When visiting a French-Canadian family, be aware that houses are divided into “public” rooms (which visitors may enter) and “private” rooms (which they may enter only when invited). The kitchen is often a private room; do not enter unless asked.

 

Dress

● In cities, conservative business attire is best.

● In rural areas and small towns, clothing is less formal and less fashionable.

● When not working, Canadians dress casually.

● Canadian winters can be quite cold; dress warmly