The Chinese boast the world’s oldest continuous civilization, with more than 4,000 years of

recorded history. Beijing (old Peking) has been the capital of China for over 800 years and is the country’s political, economic, and cultural hub.

China was ruled by strong dynasties for thousands of years. The first recorded dynasty,

the Hsia, existed around 2200 b.c., and the last dynasty, the Ch’ing, ended in 1911. Some of

the most important cultural achievements in history were produced during this time, such

as papermaking, the compass, gunpowder, and movable-type printing.

After the fall of the last dynasty, Sun Yat-sen founded the Republic of China and was

succeeded by Chiang Kai-shek in 1927. Mao Tse-tung’s Communist forces took control in 1949 and established the Communist government that still exists, although events—from the massacre in Tiananmen Square in June of 1989 on—have shown an increasingly popular demand for democratic reform. China has been divided into twenty-two provinces, five autonomous regions, and three municipalities.

Type of Government

The People’s Republic of China has a Communist government. There is a single legislative

house, the National People’s Congress; all members belong to the Communist Party. The

National People’s Congress elects the Standing Committee, which holds executive power

and is made up of the premier and leading ministers. The premier is the head of the government;the president is the chief of state. The position of secretary general of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party is also an office of great power; it is often held by the current president.

Cultural Note

The revolutionary government of the People’s Republic of China made changes to the Chinese language. Many complex symbols in written Chinese were simplified. And the direction of written Chinese was changed: instead of being written in vertical columns, it is now primarily written like most Western tongues, from left to right in horizontal rows.

This reformed Chinese has not been universally accepted by the Chinese outside the PRC. Some Taiwanese refuse to reform Chinese, preferring the prerevolutionary forms. When you go to the PRC, make sure your translators use reformed Chinese.

Language

The official national language is standard Chinese, based on the Mandarin dialect. It is spoken by more than 70 percent of the population. Many Chinese speak Cantonese, Shanghainese, and Kejia dialects. Ethnologue, at www.ethnologue.com, recognizes 202 languages. Each minority speaks its own dialect or language. English is spoken by many businesspeople. 

Although spoken Chinese has many dialects (some of which are as different as English

is from German) there is one common written language. This is why many Chinese movies

include Chinese subtitles, so that Cantonese-speaking Chinese audiences can understand

the Mandarin-speaking actors, or vice versa.

The government of the PRC has begun investing in Chinese language training for foreigners. Contributions to support Chinese language programs are being made to major

trade partners worldwide.

The Chinese View

Despite the fact that the government encourages atheism, the Chinese Constitution guarantees religious freedom (within certain constraints). Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity are the three major formal religions practiced in China. However, even larger numbers of Chinese believe in traditional Chinese philosophies, notably Confucianism and Taoism.

Confucianism, although not a religion with a divine deity, has great influence on Chinese

society. Confucius was a Chinese scholar and statesman who lived during feudal times over 2,000 years ago. He established a rigid ethical and moral system that governs all relationships. Confucius taught that the basic unit of society is the family. To preserve harmony in the home, certain reciprocal responsibilities must be preserved in relationships. These relationships are between ruler and subjects, between husband and wife, between father and son, between elder brother and younger brother, and between friends. Since all but the last are hierarchal, rank and age have historically been very important in all interactions. All actions of the individual reflect upon the family, and filial devotion is of utmost importance. The virtues of kindness, propriety, righteousness, intelligence, and faithfulness have also been deeply revered.

Know Before You Go

Most foreign businesspeople in China’s major cities will find an environment comparable to that of any city in the industrially developed world. The greatest hazards are from traffic and environmental pollution. 

China’s less-developed areas present greater challenges. The transportation infrastructure is overloaded, and some foreign goods (including medicines) may not be readily available.

China is thought to be the source for many forms of influenza that eventually infect people all over the world. It is theorized that this happens not just because of China’s unsurpassed population density, but because of Chinese farming techniques, which allow animals of different species to come into close contact. This is believed to facilitate viral transfer

between species, eventually resulting in a virus, which infects humans. Certainly, anyone who has visited an outdoor Chinese market will see different species of live animals on sale. The Chinese government recently prohibited such markets from selling civet cats, which were suspected to be the source of the SARS virus. 

China is a huge nation, subject to all manner of natural hazards. Earthquakes have caused widespread deaths in the past, but China also suffers from typhoons and other dangerous storms, floods, and mudslides. 

Cultural Orientation

Cognitive Styles: How the Chinese Organize and Process Information

The Chinese are generally circumspect toward outside sources of information. They usuallyprocess data through a subjective perspective, derived from experience—unless they have been educated at a Western university. Universalistic behavior that follows the Communist Party line is still required under the Communist government. The favoritism shown to members of the Communist Party is overtly particularistic.

Negotiation Strategies: What the Chinese Accept as Evidence

In general, truth is subjective, and one’s feelings, along with a modified belief in the Communist Party line, are primary sources of the truth. Facts are accepted by younger Chinese, particularly within the burgeoning entrepreneurial sector. However, they still strongly consider the other two sources and will not usually accept a proposal if it is in conflict with their personal feelings for the prospect.

Value Systems: The Basis for Behavior

China is still primarily a collectivistic culture dominated by the Communist Party. The following three sections identify the Value Systems in the predominant culture—their methods of dividing right from wrong, good from evil, and so forth.

Locus of Decision-Making

In a centrally controlled economy, responsibility rests with government planners, but individuals are held responsible for their decisions within the system. Local decisions are made by the head of the collective, and members must behave accordingly. Collectives are insular, closed entities in which individual goals are subordinated to those of the collective. In the zones of free enterprise, businesses are experimenting with freedom from party rule but not from the collectivist way of thinking.

Sources of Anxiety Reduction

The family, school, work unit, and local community are the basic social structures that give

stability to a person’s life. There is a strong commitment to the extended family. The state,

rather than religion, traditionally dictated the standards of wisdom, morality, and the common good. Obedience to parents is integral to a sense of security and stability. Maintaining harmony is vital. Faith in the Communist Party, which rules the PRC, is abating. Some Chinese look to other ideologies for solace. These include native and Western religions, and organizations such as Falun Gong. While most westerners view Falun Gong as a harmless physicalfitness cult, Beijing has labeled it an “ideological threat.” The fierce persecution of Falun Gong demonstrates how ruthlessly the government will attack any rival to its power.

Issues of Equality/Inequality

Relative to the general population (over 1 billion), the number of people who are powerful

members of the Communist Party is small. There has always been some concern about

inequality in a system in which equality is the purpose, but being a member of the party is

the only avenue to a position of authority. Free enterprise is purported to breed inequality

and uncertainty, but there are rapidly increasing areas where it is allowed to flourish. Age is the only noticeable interpersonal indicator of inequality because it is still revered. Women are purported to be equal to men, but economic and social inequalities continue.

Gender inequality in China also manifests itself in the official “one child” policy. Because

a generation of Chinese were only permitted to have one child, many did everything they

could to ensure that their child was a boy. Today, China has many more boys than girls,

which presents interesting problems when they reach adulthood.

Business Practices

Punctuality, Appointments, and Local Time

● Punctuality is very important in China, not only for business meetings, but for social

occasions as well. Lateness or a cancellation is a serious affront.

● Remember that written Chinese does not have tenses, but there are many words to indicate the passage of time—tomorrow, now, etc.

● Be sure to establish contacts in China before you invest in a trip. Your government’s

Department of Trade or Commerce can usually assist in arranging appointments with

local Chinese business and government officials and can identify importers, buyers,

agents, distributors, and joint venture partners.

● The best times to schedule business trips are April to June and September to October.

● The work week has generally run from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., Monday through Saturday.

However, a five-day work week has been initiated in some large cities.

● Do not plan business trips during the Chinese New Year, since many businesses close

for a week before and after the festival. The date of the New Year varies according to the

lunar calendar.

● Be cognizant of the fact that the Chinese write the date differently than most North

Americans. The year is written first, then the month, then the day (e.g., December 3,

2010, is written 10.12.03 or 10/12/03).

● For a list of the official holidays of China, visit www.kissboworshakehands.com.

● China is eight hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T. +8), or thirteen hours

ahead of U.S. Eastern Standard Time (E.S.T. +13). Despite the immense size of the country,

it has only one time zone.

Negotiating

● Be prepared for the Chinese to supply an interpreter. If possible, bring your own interpreter as well to help you understand nuances in the discussion.

● Avoid slang or jargon, especially figures of speech from sports. Use short, simple sentences, and pause often to make sure that your exact words are understood.

● Expect to make presentations to many different groups at different levels.

● Unless you understand the significance of different colors in China, use black and white

for your collateral materials.

● Foreign executives—especially those from the United States—have a reputation for

impatience, and the Chinese will drag out negotiations well beyond your deadlines just

to gain an advantage. They may try to renegotiate everything on the final day of your

visit, and they may continue to try for a better deal even after the contract is signed.

● Never exaggerate your ability to deliver, because the Chinese believe humility is a

virtue—and also because they will investigate your claims.

● Chinese may not make any important decisions without first considering whether it is an

auspicious day and hour.

● Be patient. Expect to make several trips to China before negotiations are final. The Chinese

are cautious in business matters and expect a strong relationship to be built before

they close a deal.

● Weights and measures are mainly metric, but several old Chinese measures may still be

used.

● Bring business cards with a translation printed (in Mandarin Chinese) on the reverse

side. Gold ink is the most prestigious color for the Chinese side. Never place a person’s

card in your wallet and then put it in your back pocket.

● When entering a business meeting, the highest-ranking member of your group should

lead the way.

● The Chinese expect the business conversation to be conducted by the senior officials of

each side. Subordinates may speak when they are asked to provide corroborating data, or

a comment, but in general, they do not interrupt.

● Familiarize yourself with all aspects of China before you arrive. The Chinese appreciate

Western visitors who demonstrate an interest in their culture and history.

● Be patient, expect delays, show little emotion, and do not talk about your deadlines.

● At the end of a meeting, leave before the Chinese.

Cultural Note

One dish you will no longer encounter in China is “dragon, tiger, phoenix”—which was made with the meat of a snake, a civet cat, and a pheasant. In 2003, the Chinese government prohibited the sale and consumption of the civet cat (which is actually not a feline but related to the mongoose). Civet cats were the source of the coronavirus, which

causes the potentially lethal form of pneumonia known as SARS. The SARS outbreak ended after the ban, although it left Chinese breeders with thousands of unwanted, unsellable civet cats.

Business Entertaining

● Business lunches have become popular.

● You will probably be treated to at least one evening banquet. You should always return

the favor.

● Banquets at restaurants can be ordered in varying degrees of extravagance. Be sure to

reciprocate at the same price per person as your Chinese host spent at your banquet—

never surpass your host in the degree of lavishness.

● Most banquets start between 6:30 and 7:00 p.m. and last for several hours. You should

arrive about thirty minutes before your guests—they will arrive on time.

● If you are the guest, always arrive promptly or even a little early.

● Business is not generally discussed during a meal.

● Never begin to eat or drink before your host does.

● When eating rice, it is customary to hold the bowl close to your mouth.

● At a meal, eat lightly in the beginning, as there could be up to twenty courses served.

Expect your host to keep filling your bowl with food whenever you empty it. Finishing

all of your food may be an insult to your host, because it can mean he did not provide

enough food. Leaving a bowl completely full is also rude.

● The Chinese use chopsticks for eating and a porcelain spoon for soup. Your attempts at

using chopsticks will be appreciated. When you are finished, set your chopsticks on the

chopstick rest. Placing them parallel on top of your bowl is considered a sign of bad luck.

● Sticking your chopsticks straight up in your rice bowl is rude, as they will resemble the

joss sticks used in religious ceremonies.

● Try not to drop your chopsticks; it is considered bad luck.

● Serving dishes are not passed around. Reach for food with your chopsticks, but do not

use the end you put in your mouth! It is acceptable to reach in front of others to get to the

serving dishes.

● Good topics of conversation include Chinese sights, art, calligraphy, and inquiries about

the health of the other’s family. Generally, conversation during a meal focuses on the

meal itself and is full of compliments to the preparer.

● While the Chinese are not traditionally sports fans, their interest in sport has been

increased by the Olympics. U.S. football is called “olive ball” in Mandarin Chinese

because the ball is roughly olive-shaped.

● At a banquet, expect to be served rice in an individual bowl by a waiter. In a home, your

hostess will serve the rice.

● Toasting is popular in China. At banquets, the host offers the first toast, and the ceremony continues all evening. It is acceptable to toast with a soft drink, but various alcoholic drinks will be available.

● Never take the last bit of food from a serving dish; this can signify that you are still

hungry.

● The serving of fruit signals the end of the meal.

● If you do not want refills of tea, leave some in your cup.

● If you smoke, offer your cigarettes to others in your group. Many Chinese are heavy smokers.

● Historically, women did not drink alcoholic beverages. If the business dinner is extremely

formal (like a black-tie event), businesswomen should accept a drink if offered, take a

sip, and leave it. However, at a less formal affair (like a trade association dinner), women

can now be the drinking representative!

Cultural Note

It is considered polite to sample every dish. The Chinese may even test your fortitude on purpose with exotic delicacies, like thousand-year-old eggs or marinated, deep-fried scorpions (completely intact with their stingers).

Protocol

Greetings

● The Chinese nod or bow slightly when greeting another person, although handshakes

are common. Wait for your Chinese associate to extend a hand first.

● Visitors to factories, theaters, or schools may be greeted with applause as a sign of welcome. The usual response is to applaud back.

● Introductions tend to be formal, with courtesy rather than familiarity preferred.

Titles/Forms of Address

● The Chinese are very sensitive to status and titles, so you should use official titles such

as “General,” “Committee Member,” or “Bureau Chief ” when possible. Never call anyone

“Comrade” unless you are a Communist also.

● Names are listed in a different order from Western names. Each person receives a family name, a middle name (which used to be called a generational name), and a given name at birth—in that order. Middle and given names can be separated by a space or a hyphen, but are often written as one word. For example, President Hu Jintao has the family name of Hu, a middle name of Jin, and a given name of Tao. (His name could also be rendered Hu Chin-t’ao.)

● Most people you meet should be addressed with a title and their name. If a person does

not have a professional title (President, Engineer, Doctor), simply use “Mr.” or “Madam,”

“Mrs.,” or “Miss,” plus the name.

● Chinese wives do not generally take their husband’s surnames but instead maintain their

maiden names. Although westerners commonly address a married woman as “Mrs.” plus

her husband’s family name, it is more appropriate to call her “Madam” plus her maiden

family name. For example, Liu Yongqing (female) is married to Hu Jintao (male). While

westerners would probably call her Mrs. Hu, she is properly addressed as Madam Liu.

● Thankfully, many Chinese adopt an English first name so that English speakers can have

a familiar-sounding name to identify them. Thus, Chang Wu Jiang may call himself Mr.

Tony Chang. Others use their initials (Mr. T. J. Chang).

● If many Chinese seem to have similar clan names, it is because there are only about

400 different surnames in China! However, when these surnames are transcribed into

English, there are several possible variations. For example, Wong, Wang, and Huang are

all English versions of the same Chinese clan name.

Gestures

● Avoid making exaggerated gestures or using dramatic facial expressions. The Chinese do not use their hands when speaking and become distracted by a speaker who does.

● The Chinese do not like to be touched by people they do not know. This is especially

important to remember when dealing with older people or people in important positions.

● Members of the same sex may be seen publicly holding hands, but public affection

between the opposite sexes is not condoned.

● Use an open hand rather than one finger to point.

● To beckon, turn the palm down and wave the fingers toward the body.

● Do not put your hands in your mouth (biting your nails, dislodging food from your

teeth); this is considered disgusting.

Gifts

● Gift giving is a sensitive issue in China. While often in violation of Chinese law, gift giving

is widespread.

● Avoid giving anything of value in front of others; it could cause the recipient both embarrassment and trouble.

● A gift from your company to the Chinese organization or factory is acceptable. Make it

clear that the gift is on behalf of the whole company you represent and is for the whole

group on the receiving end. Be sure to present the gift to the acknowledged leader of

the Chinese delegation. Gifts of this sort might include items from your region of the

country, like local crafts, historical memorabilia, or an illustrated book.

● A banquet is considered an acceptable gift. Your Chinese hosts will certainly give you

one, and you should reciprocate.

● High-quality pens are appreciated. Other good gifts include gourmet food items and

expensive liquors, like good cognac.

● Stamps are appreciated gifts if your associate is a collector (stamp collecting is popular

in China). Cigarette lighters, T-shirts of well-known foreign sports teams, and electronic

gadgets like iPods, electronic toys, etc., are also suitable. However, many of these items

are made in China—be certain to check to make sure they are produced in your own

home country!

● When giving or receiving a gift, use both hands. The gift is not opened in the presence of

the giver.

● The Chinese traditionally decline a gift three times before accepting; this prevents them

from appearing greedy. Continue to insist; once they accept the gift, say you are pleased

that they have done so.

● Gifts of food are always appreciated by Chinese, but avoid bringing food gifts with you to

a dinner or party (unless it has been agreed upon beforehand). To bring food may imply

that your host cannot provide enough. Instead, send food as a thank-you gift afterward.

Candy and fruit baskets are good choices.

● Older Chinese associate all of the following gifts and colors with funerals—avoid them:

■ Straw sandals

■ Clocks

■ A stork or crane (although the Western association of storks with births is known to

many young Chinese)

■ Handkerchiefs (often given at funerals, they symbolize sadness and weeping)

■ Gifts (or wrapping paper) in which the predominant color is white, black, or blue.

● Do not wrap a gift before arriving in China; it may be unwrapped in Customs.

● If possible, wrap gifts in red, a lucky color. Pink and yellow are happy, prosperous colors

and are also good choices. Do not use white, which is the color for funerals. Ask about

appropriate paper at your hotel or at a store that wraps gifts.

● All business negotiations should be concluded before gifts are exchanged.

● At Chinese New Year, it is customary to give a gift of money in a red envelope to children

and to the service personnel that help you on a regular basis. This gift is called a hong

bao. Give only new bills in even numbers and even amounts. Many employers give each

employee a hong bao equivalent to one month’s salary.

Dress

● For business, men should wear conservative suits, shirts, and ties. Loud colors are not

appropriate. Women should also wear conservative suits, with relatively high-necked

blouses and low heels—their colors should be as neutral as possible.

● At formal occasions, evening gowns are not necessary for women unless the event is a

formal reception given by a foreign diplomat. Men may wear suits and ties.

● Casualwear is still somewhat conservative. Revealing clothing may be offensive, but jeans are acceptable for both men and women. Shorts are appropriate when exercising.